Thursday, March 6, 2008
Wednesday, March 5, 2008
SASTRA UNIVERSITY
Mission and objectives
SASTRA University's chief mission is to impart value based higher education turning out good engineers, scientists and researchers who are at the same time good individuals and good citizens in order that they may become useful members of an enlightened humane society.
SASTRA Deemed University aims:
To become a role model institution for higher learning
To offer need based courses in tie-up with industries
To establish a tool for social and rural development
To explore the applications of ancient technology and incorporate higher education to the underprievelaged
To establish meaningful linkages with business and service sectors and hence offer a quality education
Schools and departments
Schools in SASTRA university are:
>> School of COMPUTING.
>> School of Management
>> School of Civil Engineering
>> School of Humanities & Sciences
>> School of Mechanical Engineering
>> School of Chemical & Biotechnology
>> School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
>> Centre for Nanotechnology & Advanced Biomaterials [CeNTAB]
>> Centre for Advanced Research in Indian System of Medicine [CARISM]
>> Directorate of Distance Education - SASTRA
Every school offers various programs and the comprehensive list can be obtained from this page.
Infrastructure and training
A sprawling campus housing a built up area of over 1 million square feet (90,000 m²) and a vibrant population of over 5,000 students have made SASTRA a landmark in the educational map of India. Building professional contacts on a personal level, students are well supported by the Department of Training and Placement, which offers them a continuous and progressive training that hones their personal, social, inter-personal and professional skills right from their first year. Professional and specialized training is imparted through group discussions, interviews and competitive examinations. Campus interviews are conducted and students are guided to plan their career. Counseling is provided to students to face interviews and to make informed choices, both academic and professional, from among the various options available to them.
The batches from 2005 till date have had phenomenal placements and the number of organizations keep growing. The 2003-07 batch of engineers have a lot to feel happy as only a minuscule minority are to be placed.
SASTRA University's chief mission is to impart value based higher education turning out good engineers, scientists and researchers who are at the same time good individuals and good citizens in order that they may become useful members of an enlightened humane society.
SASTRA Deemed University aims:
To become a role model institution for higher learning
To offer need based courses in tie-up with industries
To establish a tool for social and rural development
To explore the applications of ancient technology and incorporate higher education to the underprievelaged
To establish meaningful linkages with business and service sectors and hence offer a quality education
Schools and departments
Schools in SASTRA university are:
>> School of COMPUTING.
>> School of Management
>> School of Civil Engineering
>> School of Humanities & Sciences
>> School of Mechanical Engineering
>> School of Chemical & Biotechnology
>> School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
>> Centre for Nanotechnology & Advanced Biomaterials [CeNTAB]
>> Centre for Advanced Research in Indian System of Medicine [CARISM]
>> Directorate of Distance Education - SASTRA
Every school offers various programs and the comprehensive list can be obtained from this page.
Infrastructure and training
A sprawling campus housing a built up area of over 1 million square feet (90,000 m²) and a vibrant population of over 5,000 students have made SASTRA a landmark in the educational map of India. Building professional contacts on a personal level, students are well supported by the Department of Training and Placement, which offers them a continuous and progressive training that hones their personal, social, inter-personal and professional skills right from their first year. Professional and specialized training is imparted through group discussions, interviews and competitive examinations. Campus interviews are conducted and students are guided to plan their career. Counseling is provided to students to face interviews and to make informed choices, both academic and professional, from among the various options available to them.
The batches from 2005 till date have had phenomenal placements and the number of organizations keep growing. The 2003-07 batch of engineers have a lot to feel happy as only a minuscule minority are to be placed.
CHICKEN GUNIA
[edit] Symptoms
The symptoms of Chikungunya include fever which can reach 39°C, (102.2°F) a petechial or maculopapular rash usually involving the limbs and trunk, and arthralgia or arthritis affecting multiple joints which can be debilitating. The symptoms could also include headache, conjunctival injection, and slight photophobia. High fevers and joint pain are found in the current epidemic in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, India. The fever typically lasts for two days and then comes down abruptly. However, other symptoms, namely joint pain, intense headache, insomnia and an extreme degree of prostration last for a variable period; usually for about 5 to 7 days. Patients have complained of joint pains for much longer time periods depending on their age. Younger patients recover within 5 to 15 days; middle-agers recover in 1 to 2.5 months. Recovery is longer for the elderly. The severity of the disease as well as its duration is less in younger patients and pregnant women. No untoward effects of pregnancy are noticed following the infection.
Ocular inflammation from Chikungunya may present as iridocyclitis, and have retinal lesions as well.[21]
Dermatological manifestations observed in a recent outbreak of Chikungunya fever in Southern India (Dr. Arun Inamadar, Dr. Aparna Palit, Dr.V.V. Sampagavi, Dr. Raghunath S, Dr. N.S. Deshmukh), Western India (Surat) (Western India reported by Dr. Buddhadev) and Eastern India (Puri) (Dr. Milon Mitra et al) includes the following:
Maculopapular rash
Nasal blotchy erythema
Freckle-like pigmentation over centro-facial area
Flagellate pigmentation on face and extremities
Lichenoid eruption and hyperpigmentation in photodistributed areas
Multiple aphthous-like ulcers over scrotum, crural areas and axilla.
Lympoedema in acral distribution (bilateral/unilateral)
Multiple ecchymotic spots (Children)
Vesiculobullous lesions (infants)
Subungual hemorrhage
Photo Urticaria
Acral Urticaria
Cephalgia
Lumbago
Vomiting
Epistaxis and haemetemesis
Histopathologically, pigmentary changes, maculopapular rash, lichenoid rash, aphthous-like ulcers show lymphocytic infiltration around dermal blood vessels (Inamadar et al). Pedal oedema (swelling of legs) is observed in many patients, the cause of which remains obscure as it is not related to any cardiovascular, renal or hepatic abnormalities.
Treatment
There are no specific treatments for Chikungunya. There is no vaccine currently available. A Phase II vaccine trial, sponsored by the US Government and published in the American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene in 2000, used a live, attenuated virus, developing viral resistance in 98% of those tested after 28 days and 85% still showed resistance after one year.[22]
A serological test for Chikungunya is available from the University of Malaya in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Chloroquine is gaining ground as a possible treatment for the symptoms associated with chikungunya and as an antiviral agent to combat the Chikungunya virus. A University of Malaya study found that for arthritis-like symptoms that are not relieved by aspirin and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID), chloroquine phosphate (250 mg/day) has given promising results.[23] Research by an Italian scientist, Andrea Savarino, and his colleagues together with a French government press release in March 2006[24] have added more credence to the claim that chloroquine might be effective in treating chikungunya. Unpublished studies in cell culture and monkeys show no effect of chloroquine treatment on reduction of chikungunya disease. The fact sheet on Chikungunya advises against using aspirin, Ibuprofen, naproxen and other NSAIDs are recommended for arthritic pain and fever.
Infected persons should limit further exposure to mosquito bites, stay indoors and under a mosquito net. Further, "supportive care with rest is preferred during the acute joint symptoms. Movement and mild exercise tend to improve stiffness and morning arthralgia, but heavy exercise may exacerbate rheumatic symptoms."[25] Arthralgia remains troublesome even after 8 months. In Kerala, patients use honey and lime mix. Some people cite relief from consuming turmeric in low volumes.
Preventive measures
The most effective means of prevention are those that protect against any contact with the disease-carrying mosquitos. These include using insect repellents with substances like DEET (also called NNDB or N,N'-Diethyl-3-methylbenzamide), icaridin (also known as picaridin and KBR3023), PMD (p-menthane-3,8-diol, a substance derived from the lemon eucalyptus tree), or IR3535. Wearing bite-proof long sleeves and trousers (pants) also offers protection. In addition, garments can be treated with pyrethroids, a class of insecticides that often has repellent properties. Vaporized pyrethroids (for example in mosquito coils) also have a certain spacial repellency. Securing screens on windows and doors will help to keep mosquitoes out of the house. In the case of the day active Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus, however, this will only have a limited effect, since many contacts between the vector and the host occur outside. Thus, mosquito control is especially important.
The symptoms of Chikungunya include fever which can reach 39°C, (102.2°F) a petechial or maculopapular rash usually involving the limbs and trunk, and arthralgia or arthritis affecting multiple joints which can be debilitating. The symptoms could also include headache, conjunctival injection, and slight photophobia. High fevers and joint pain are found in the current epidemic in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, India. The fever typically lasts for two days and then comes down abruptly. However, other symptoms, namely joint pain, intense headache, insomnia and an extreme degree of prostration last for a variable period; usually for about 5 to 7 days. Patients have complained of joint pains for much longer time periods depending on their age. Younger patients recover within 5 to 15 days; middle-agers recover in 1 to 2.5 months. Recovery is longer for the elderly. The severity of the disease as well as its duration is less in younger patients and pregnant women. No untoward effects of pregnancy are noticed following the infection.
Ocular inflammation from Chikungunya may present as iridocyclitis, and have retinal lesions as well.[21]
Dermatological manifestations observed in a recent outbreak of Chikungunya fever in Southern India (Dr. Arun Inamadar, Dr. Aparna Palit, Dr.V.V. Sampagavi, Dr. Raghunath S, Dr. N.S. Deshmukh), Western India (Surat) (Western India reported by Dr. Buddhadev) and Eastern India (Puri) (Dr. Milon Mitra et al) includes the following:
Maculopapular rash
Nasal blotchy erythema
Freckle-like pigmentation over centro-facial area
Flagellate pigmentation on face and extremities
Lichenoid eruption and hyperpigmentation in photodistributed areas
Multiple aphthous-like ulcers over scrotum, crural areas and axilla.
Lympoedema in acral distribution (bilateral/unilateral)
Multiple ecchymotic spots (Children)
Vesiculobullous lesions (infants)
Subungual hemorrhage
Photo Urticaria
Acral Urticaria
Cephalgia
Lumbago
Vomiting
Epistaxis and haemetemesis
Histopathologically, pigmentary changes, maculopapular rash, lichenoid rash, aphthous-like ulcers show lymphocytic infiltration around dermal blood vessels (Inamadar et al). Pedal oedema (swelling of legs) is observed in many patients, the cause of which remains obscure as it is not related to any cardiovascular, renal or hepatic abnormalities.
Treatment
There are no specific treatments for Chikungunya. There is no vaccine currently available. A Phase II vaccine trial, sponsored by the US Government and published in the American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene in 2000, used a live, attenuated virus, developing viral resistance in 98% of those tested after 28 days and 85% still showed resistance after one year.[22]
A serological test for Chikungunya is available from the University of Malaya in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Chloroquine is gaining ground as a possible treatment for the symptoms associated with chikungunya and as an antiviral agent to combat the Chikungunya virus. A University of Malaya study found that for arthritis-like symptoms that are not relieved by aspirin and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID), chloroquine phosphate (250 mg/day) has given promising results.[23] Research by an Italian scientist, Andrea Savarino, and his colleagues together with a French government press release in March 2006[24] have added more credence to the claim that chloroquine might be effective in treating chikungunya. Unpublished studies in cell culture and monkeys show no effect of chloroquine treatment on reduction of chikungunya disease. The fact sheet on Chikungunya advises against using aspirin, Ibuprofen, naproxen and other NSAIDs are recommended for arthritic pain and fever.
Infected persons should limit further exposure to mosquito bites, stay indoors and under a mosquito net. Further, "supportive care with rest is preferred during the acute joint symptoms. Movement and mild exercise tend to improve stiffness and morning arthralgia, but heavy exercise may exacerbate rheumatic symptoms."[25] Arthralgia remains troublesome even after 8 months. In Kerala, patients use honey and lime mix. Some people cite relief from consuming turmeric in low volumes.
Preventive measures
The most effective means of prevention are those that protect against any contact with the disease-carrying mosquitos. These include using insect repellents with substances like DEET (also called NNDB or N,N'-Diethyl-3-methylbenzamide), icaridin (also known as picaridin and KBR3023), PMD (p-menthane-3,8-diol, a substance derived from the lemon eucalyptus tree), or IR3535. Wearing bite-proof long sleeves and trousers (pants) also offers protection. In addition, garments can be treated with pyrethroids, a class of insecticides that often has repellent properties. Vaporized pyrethroids (for example in mosquito coils) also have a certain spacial repellency. Securing screens on windows and doors will help to keep mosquitoes out of the house. In the case of the day active Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus, however, this will only have a limited effect, since many contacts between the vector and the host occur outside. Thus, mosquito control is especially important.
SHARE MARKET
The expression 'stock market' refers to the system that enables the trading of company stocks (collective shares), other securities, and derivatives. Bonds are still traditionally traded in an informal, over-the-counter market known as the bond market. Commodities are traded in commodities markets, and derivatives are traded in a variety of markets (but, like bonds, mostly 'over-the-counter').
The size of the worldwide 'bond market' is estimated at $45 trillion. The size of the 'stock market' is estimated at about $51 trillion. The world derivatives market has been estimated at about $480 trillion 'face' or nominal value, 30 times the size of the U.S. economy…and 12 times the size of the entire world economy.[1] It must be noted though that the value of the derivatives market, because it is stated in terms of notional values, cannot be directly compared to a stock or a fixed income security, which traditionally refers to an actual value. (Many such relatively illiquid securities are valued as marked to model, rather than an actual market price.)
The stocks are listed and traded on stock exchanges which are entities (a corporation or mutual organization) specialized in the business of bringing buyers and sellers of stocks and securities together. The stock market in the United States includes the trading of all securities listed on the NYSE, the NASDAQ, the Amex, as well as on the many regional exchanges, e.g. OTCBB and Pink Sheets. European examples of stock exchanges include the Paris Bourse (now part of Euronext), the London Stock Exchange and the Deutsche Borse.
The size of the worldwide 'bond market' is estimated at $45 trillion. The size of the 'stock market' is estimated at about $51 trillion. The world derivatives market has been estimated at about $480 trillion 'face' or nominal value, 30 times the size of the U.S. economy…and 12 times the size of the entire world economy.[1] It must be noted though that the value of the derivatives market, because it is stated in terms of notional values, cannot be directly compared to a stock or a fixed income security, which traditionally refers to an actual value. (Many such relatively illiquid securities are valued as marked to model, rather than an actual market price.)
The stocks are listed and traded on stock exchanges which are entities (a corporation or mutual organization) specialized in the business of bringing buyers and sellers of stocks and securities together. The stock market in the United States includes the trading of all securities listed on the NYSE, the NASDAQ, the Amex, as well as on the many regional exchanges, e.g. OTCBB and Pink Sheets. European examples of stock exchanges include the Paris Bourse (now part of Euronext), the London Stock Exchange and the Deutsche Borse.
BERMUDA TRIANGLE
The Bermuda Triangle, also known as the Devil's Triangle, is a region of the northwestern Atlantic Ocean in which a number of aircraft and surface vessels have disappeared. Some people have claimed that these disappearances fall beyond the boundaries of human error or acts of nature. Some of these disappearances have been attributed to the paranormal, a suspension of the laws of physics, or activity by extraterrestrial beings by popular culture.[1] Though a substantial documentation exists showing numerous incidents to have been inaccurately reported or embellished by later authors, and numerous official agencies have gone on record as stating the number and nature of disappearances to be similar to any other area of ocean, many have remained unexplained despite considerable investigation
GHOST
Historical background
The belief in ghosts as souls of the departed is closely tied to the ancient concept of animism, which attributed souls to everything in nature, including human beings, animals, plants, rocks, etc. [6] As the nineteenth-century anthropologist James Frazer explained in his classic work, The Golden Bough, souls were seen as the creature within that animated the body:
"If a man lives and moves, it can only be because he has a little man or animal inside, who moves him. The animal inside the animal, the man inside the man, is the soul. And as the activity of an animal or man is explained by the presence of the soul, so the repose of sleep or death is explained by its absence; sleep or trance being the temporary, death being the permanent absence of the soul... "[7]
Although the human soul was sometimes symbolically or literally depicted in ancient cultures as a bird or other animal, it was widely held that the soul was an exact reproduction of the body in every feature, even down to clothing the person wore. This is depicted in artwork from various ancient cultures, including such works as the Egyptian Book of the Dead, which shows deceased people in the afterlife appearing much as they did before death, including the style of dress.
Another widespread belief concerning ghosts is that they were composed of a misty, airy, or subtle material. Anthropologists speculate that this may also stem from early beliefs that ghosts were the person within the person, most noticeable in ancient cultures as a person's breath, which upon exhaling in colder climates appears visibly as a white mist.[6] This belief may have also fostered the metaphorical meaning of "breath" in certain languages, such as the Latin spiritus and the Greek pneuma, which by analogy became extended to mean the soul. In the Bible, God is depicted as animating Adam with a breath.
An artist's interpretation of a ghostly woman on a flight of stairs, based on common descriptions.Although the evidence for ghosts is largely anecdotal, the belief in ghosts throughout history has remained widespread and persistent.
In many historical accounts, ghosts were thought to be deceased people looking for vengeance, or imprisoned on earth for bad things they did during life. Most cultures have ghost stories in their mythologies. Many stories from the Middle Ages and the Romantic era rely on the macabre and the fantastic, and ghosts are a major theme in literature from those eras.
Ghost stories date back to ancient times, and can be found in many different cultures. The Chinese philosopher, Mo Tzu (470-391 BC), is quoted as having said:
"The way to find out whether anything exists or not is to depend on the testimony of the ears and eyes of the multitude. If some have heard it or some have seen it then we have to say it exists. If no one has heard it and no one has seen it then we have to say it does not exist. So, then, why not go to some village or some district and inquire? If from antiquity to the present, and since the beginning of man, there are men who have seen the bodies of ghosts and spirits and heard their voices, how can we say that they do not exist? If none have heard them and none have seen them, then how can we say they do? But those who deny the existence of the spirits say: "Many in the world have heard and seen something of ghosts and spirits. Since they vary in testimony, who are to be accepted as really having heard and seen them?" Mo Tzu said: As we are to rely on what many have jointly seen and what many have jointly heard, the case of Tu Po is to be accepted."[8] (note: King Hsuan (827-783 BC) executed his minister, Tu Po, on false charges even after being warned that Tu Po's ghost would seek revenge. Three years later, according to historical chronicles, Tu Po's ghost shot and killed Hsuan with a bow and arrow before an assembly of feudal lords.)
One of the earliest known ghost "sightings" in the west took place in Athens, Greece.[9] Pliny the Younger (c. (50 AD) described it in a letter to Licinius Sura: Athenodoros Cananites (c. 74 BC – 7 AD), a Stoic philosopher, decided to rent a large, Athenian house, to investigate widespread rumors that it was haunted. Athenodoros staked out at the house that night, and, sure enough, a disheveled, aged spectre, bound at feet and hands with rattling chains, eventually "appeared". The spirit then beckoned for Athenodoros to follow him; Athenodoros complied, but the ghost soon vanished. The philosopher marked the spot where the old man had disappeared, and, on the next day, advised the magistrates to dig there. The man's shackled bones were reportedly uncovered three years later. After a proper burial, the hauntings ceased.[10]
Many Eastern religious traditions also subscribe to the concept of ghosts. The Hindu Garuda Purana has detailed information about ghosts.[11]
The Hebrew Torah and the Bible contain few references to ghosts, associating spiritism with forbidden occult activities cf. Deuteronomy 18:11. The most notable reference is in the First Book of Samuel (I Samuel 28:7-19 KJV), in which a disguised King Saul has the Witch of Endor summon the spirit of Samuel. In the New Testament, Jesus has to persuade the Disciples that he is not a ghost following the resurrection, Matthew 24. In a similar vein, Jesus' followers at first believe him to be a ghost when they see him walking on water.
The Child ballad Sweet William's Ghost recounts the story of a ghost returning to beg a woman to free him from his promise to marry her, as he obviously cannot being dead; her refusal would mean his damnation. This reflects a popular British belief that the dead would haunt their lovers if they took up with a new love without some formal release.[12]
The Unquiet Grave expresses a belief even more widespread, found in various location over Europe: ghosts can stem from the excessive grief of the living, whose mourning interferes with the dead's peaceful rest.[13]
[edit] Skeptical analysis
Ghostly face of a murderer or just rippled glass? This image is undoctored, and some claim it shows a ghost. Others, however, say it is an illusion caused by the way the light hits ripples in the glass.Critics of "eyewitness ghost sightings" suggest that limitations of human perception and ordinary physical explanations can account for such sightings; for example, air pressure changes in a home causing doors to slam, or lights from a passing car reflected through a window at night.[14] Pareidolia, an innate tendency to recognize patterns in random perceptions, can cause people to believe they have seen ghosts.[15] Reports of ghosts "seen out of the corner of the eye" may be accounted for by the sensitivity of human peripheral vision. According to skeptical investigator Joe Nickell:
...peripheral vision is very sensitive and can easily mislead, especially late at night, when the brain is tired and more likely to misinterpret sights and sounds.[14]
Nickell also states that a person's belief that a location is haunted may cause them to interpret mundane events as confirmations of a haunting:
Once the idea of a ghost appears in a household . . . no longer is an object merely mislaid. . . . There gets to be a dynamic in a place where the idea that it's haunted takes on a life of its own. One-of-a-kind quirks that could never be repeated all become further evidence of the haunting.[14]
Sound is thought to be another cause of supposed sightings. Frequencies lower than 20 hertz are called infrasound and are normally inaudible, but scientists Richard Lord and Richard Wiseman have concluded that infrasound can cause humans to experience bizarre feelings in a room, such as anxiety, extreme sorrow or even the chills.[16]
Carbon monoxide poisoning, which can cause changes in perception of the visual and auditory systems,[17] was recognized as a possible explanation for haunted houses as early as 1921.
Another potential explanation of apparitions is that they are hypnagogic hallucinations.
The traditional perception of ghosts wearing clothing is considered illogical by some researchers, given the supposed spiritual nature of ghosts, suggesting that the basis of what a ghost is said to look like and consist of is quite dependent on preconceptions made by society.[18] Skeptics also say that, to date, there is no credible scientific evidence that any location is inhabited by spirits of the dead.[19]
Some researchers, such as Professor Michael Persinger (Laurentian University, Canada), have speculated that changes in geomagnetic fields (created, e.g., by tectonic stresses in the Earth's crust or solar activity) could stimulate the brain's temporal lobes and produce many of the experiences associated with hauntings. This theory has been tested in various ways. Some scientists have examined the relationship between the time of onset of unusual phenomena in allegedly haunted locations and any sudden increases in global geomagnetic activity. Others have investigated whether the location of alleged hauntings is associated with certain types of magnetic activity. Finally, a third strand of work has involved laboratory studies in which stimulation of the temporal lobe with transcerebral magnetic fields has elicited subjective experiences that strongly parallel phenomena associated with hauntings. All of this work is controversial and thus has attracted a large amount of debate and disagreement.[20]
The belief in ghosts as souls of the departed is closely tied to the ancient concept of animism, which attributed souls to everything in nature, including human beings, animals, plants, rocks, etc. [6] As the nineteenth-century anthropologist James Frazer explained in his classic work, The Golden Bough, souls were seen as the creature within that animated the body:
"If a man lives and moves, it can only be because he has a little man or animal inside, who moves him. The animal inside the animal, the man inside the man, is the soul. And as the activity of an animal or man is explained by the presence of the soul, so the repose of sleep or death is explained by its absence; sleep or trance being the temporary, death being the permanent absence of the soul... "[7]
Although the human soul was sometimes symbolically or literally depicted in ancient cultures as a bird or other animal, it was widely held that the soul was an exact reproduction of the body in every feature, even down to clothing the person wore. This is depicted in artwork from various ancient cultures, including such works as the Egyptian Book of the Dead, which shows deceased people in the afterlife appearing much as they did before death, including the style of dress.
Another widespread belief concerning ghosts is that they were composed of a misty, airy, or subtle material. Anthropologists speculate that this may also stem from early beliefs that ghosts were the person within the person, most noticeable in ancient cultures as a person's breath, which upon exhaling in colder climates appears visibly as a white mist.[6] This belief may have also fostered the metaphorical meaning of "breath" in certain languages, such as the Latin spiritus and the Greek pneuma, which by analogy became extended to mean the soul. In the Bible, God is depicted as animating Adam with a breath.
An artist's interpretation of a ghostly woman on a flight of stairs, based on common descriptions.Although the evidence for ghosts is largely anecdotal, the belief in ghosts throughout history has remained widespread and persistent.
In many historical accounts, ghosts were thought to be deceased people looking for vengeance, or imprisoned on earth for bad things they did during life. Most cultures have ghost stories in their mythologies. Many stories from the Middle Ages and the Romantic era rely on the macabre and the fantastic, and ghosts are a major theme in literature from those eras.
Ghost stories date back to ancient times, and can be found in many different cultures. The Chinese philosopher, Mo Tzu (470-391 BC), is quoted as having said:
"The way to find out whether anything exists or not is to depend on the testimony of the ears and eyes of the multitude. If some have heard it or some have seen it then we have to say it exists. If no one has heard it and no one has seen it then we have to say it does not exist. So, then, why not go to some village or some district and inquire? If from antiquity to the present, and since the beginning of man, there are men who have seen the bodies of ghosts and spirits and heard their voices, how can we say that they do not exist? If none have heard them and none have seen them, then how can we say they do? But those who deny the existence of the spirits say: "Many in the world have heard and seen something of ghosts and spirits. Since they vary in testimony, who are to be accepted as really having heard and seen them?" Mo Tzu said: As we are to rely on what many have jointly seen and what many have jointly heard, the case of Tu Po is to be accepted."[8] (note: King Hsuan (827-783 BC) executed his minister, Tu Po, on false charges even after being warned that Tu Po's ghost would seek revenge. Three years later, according to historical chronicles, Tu Po's ghost shot and killed Hsuan with a bow and arrow before an assembly of feudal lords.)
One of the earliest known ghost "sightings" in the west took place in Athens, Greece.[9] Pliny the Younger (c. (50 AD) described it in a letter to Licinius Sura: Athenodoros Cananites (c. 74 BC – 7 AD), a Stoic philosopher, decided to rent a large, Athenian house, to investigate widespread rumors that it was haunted. Athenodoros staked out at the house that night, and, sure enough, a disheveled, aged spectre, bound at feet and hands with rattling chains, eventually "appeared". The spirit then beckoned for Athenodoros to follow him; Athenodoros complied, but the ghost soon vanished. The philosopher marked the spot where the old man had disappeared, and, on the next day, advised the magistrates to dig there. The man's shackled bones were reportedly uncovered three years later. After a proper burial, the hauntings ceased.[10]
Many Eastern religious traditions also subscribe to the concept of ghosts. The Hindu Garuda Purana has detailed information about ghosts.[11]
The Hebrew Torah and the Bible contain few references to ghosts, associating spiritism with forbidden occult activities cf. Deuteronomy 18:11. The most notable reference is in the First Book of Samuel (I Samuel 28:7-19 KJV), in which a disguised King Saul has the Witch of Endor summon the spirit of Samuel. In the New Testament, Jesus has to persuade the Disciples that he is not a ghost following the resurrection, Matthew 24. In a similar vein, Jesus' followers at first believe him to be a ghost when they see him walking on water.
The Child ballad Sweet William's Ghost recounts the story of a ghost returning to beg a woman to free him from his promise to marry her, as he obviously cannot being dead; her refusal would mean his damnation. This reflects a popular British belief that the dead would haunt their lovers if they took up with a new love without some formal release.[12]
The Unquiet Grave expresses a belief even more widespread, found in various location over Europe: ghosts can stem from the excessive grief of the living, whose mourning interferes with the dead's peaceful rest.[13]
[edit] Skeptical analysis
Ghostly face of a murderer or just rippled glass? This image is undoctored, and some claim it shows a ghost. Others, however, say it is an illusion caused by the way the light hits ripples in the glass.Critics of "eyewitness ghost sightings" suggest that limitations of human perception and ordinary physical explanations can account for such sightings; for example, air pressure changes in a home causing doors to slam, or lights from a passing car reflected through a window at night.[14] Pareidolia, an innate tendency to recognize patterns in random perceptions, can cause people to believe they have seen ghosts.[15] Reports of ghosts "seen out of the corner of the eye" may be accounted for by the sensitivity of human peripheral vision. According to skeptical investigator Joe Nickell:
...peripheral vision is very sensitive and can easily mislead, especially late at night, when the brain is tired and more likely to misinterpret sights and sounds.[14]
Nickell also states that a person's belief that a location is haunted may cause them to interpret mundane events as confirmations of a haunting:
Once the idea of a ghost appears in a household . . . no longer is an object merely mislaid. . . . There gets to be a dynamic in a place where the idea that it's haunted takes on a life of its own. One-of-a-kind quirks that could never be repeated all become further evidence of the haunting.[14]
Sound is thought to be another cause of supposed sightings. Frequencies lower than 20 hertz are called infrasound and are normally inaudible, but scientists Richard Lord and Richard Wiseman have concluded that infrasound can cause humans to experience bizarre feelings in a room, such as anxiety, extreme sorrow or even the chills.[16]
Carbon monoxide poisoning, which can cause changes in perception of the visual and auditory systems,[17] was recognized as a possible explanation for haunted houses as early as 1921.
Another potential explanation of apparitions is that they are hypnagogic hallucinations.
The traditional perception of ghosts wearing clothing is considered illogical by some researchers, given the supposed spiritual nature of ghosts, suggesting that the basis of what a ghost is said to look like and consist of is quite dependent on preconceptions made by society.[18] Skeptics also say that, to date, there is no credible scientific evidence that any location is inhabited by spirits of the dead.[19]
Some researchers, such as Professor Michael Persinger (Laurentian University, Canada), have speculated that changes in geomagnetic fields (created, e.g., by tectonic stresses in the Earth's crust or solar activity) could stimulate the brain's temporal lobes and produce many of the experiences associated with hauntings. This theory has been tested in various ways. Some scientists have examined the relationship between the time of onset of unusual phenomena in allegedly haunted locations and any sudden increases in global geomagnetic activity. Others have investigated whether the location of alleged hauntings is associated with certain types of magnetic activity. Finally, a third strand of work has involved laboratory studies in which stimulation of the temporal lobe with transcerebral magnetic fields has elicited subjective experiences that strongly parallel phenomena associated with hauntings. All of this work is controversial and thus has attracted a large amount of debate and disagreement.[20]
IT INDUSTRY
Hyderabad is known as the second Silicon Valley [1] in India after Bangalore. Hyderabad's IT exports exceeded $1 billion in 2004[1]. There has been extensive investments in digital infrastructure. Development of HITEC City prompted several IT and ITES companies to setup operations in the city - have led civic boosters to call their city "Cyberabad".
Hyderabad today has several software technology campuses with leading companies such as Accenture, AppLabs, Infosys, Invensys, Microsoft, CSC, Oracle, Wipro, Kanbay, GE, iGate, ValueLabs, ADP, Dell, Deloitte, HSBCGLT, SumTotal, Intergraph, Analog Devices, IBM, Keane,Satyam, Baan, Birlasoft, Cypress Semiconductors, InMage, SatNav Technologies, Tata Consultancy Services(TCS), Amazon , Google,HP(Hewlett-Packard),Oracle Corporation,Capgemini,CA(Computer Associates), Qualcomm, Cognizant Technology Solutions(CTS),Sierra Optima,UBS,wellsfargo,Microsoft Corporation,Cntrl S,MindTree,HCL,Polaris,Kenexa,Bank of America,InfoTech,VisualSoft,Pramati,GoldStone,Verizon,Virtusa,covansys,FourSoft,CMC,iGATE,LinkWell and Sierra Atlantic etc having established centers in the city.
Recently Fab City, a silicon chip manufacturing facility, was finalised to be setup in the city with an investment of Rs.13,300 crore($3 billion) by the AMD-SemIndia consortium. Fab City. India’s semiconductor ecosystem is poised to shape up with the government receiving seven confirmed investment proposals worth $7 billion for Fab City in Hyderabad. In addition, five more proposals amounting to $800 million have got an in-principle approval while three others are under active consideration
Hyderabad today has several software technology campuses with leading companies such as Accenture, AppLabs, Infosys, Invensys, Microsoft, CSC, Oracle, Wipro, Kanbay, GE, iGate, ValueLabs, ADP, Dell, Deloitte, HSBCGLT, SumTotal, Intergraph, Analog Devices, IBM, Keane,Satyam, Baan, Birlasoft, Cypress Semiconductors, InMage, SatNav Technologies, Tata Consultancy Services(TCS), Amazon , Google,HP(Hewlett-Packard),Oracle Corporation,Capgemini,CA(Computer Associates), Qualcomm, Cognizant Technology Solutions(CTS),Sierra Optima,UBS,wellsfargo,Microsoft Corporation,Cntrl S,MindTree,HCL,Polaris,Kenexa,Bank of America,InfoTech,VisualSoft,Pramati,GoldStone,Verizon,Virtusa,covansys,FourSoft,CMC,iGATE,LinkWell and Sierra Atlantic etc having established centers in the city.
Recently Fab City, a silicon chip manufacturing facility, was finalised to be setup in the city with an investment of Rs.13,300 crore($3 billion) by the AMD-SemIndia consortium. Fab City. India’s semiconductor ecosystem is poised to shape up with the government receiving seven confirmed investment proposals worth $7 billion for Fab City in Hyderabad. In addition, five more proposals amounting to $800 million have got an in-principle approval while three others are under active consideration
AMERICAN ELECTION
In the 19th century, the United States invented or developed a number of new methods for conducting American Election Campaigns. For the most part the techniques were original and were not copied from Europe or anywhere else. In every state the great majority of free adult men could vote by the early 19th century. (Slaves became free in 1863-65 and could vote between about 1870 and 1900.)
The system was characterized by two major parties who dominated government at the local, state and national level, and enlisted most voters into a loyal "army" of supporters. There were numerous small third parties that usually were short-lived or inconsequential. The complex system of electing federal, state and local officials meant that election campaigns were both frequent and consequential in terms of political power. Nearly all government jobs were distributed on a patronage basis to party workers. The jobs were honorific and usually paid very well. The best way to get a patronage job was to work in the election campaign for the winning party, and volunteers were numerous. Elections provided Americans with much of their news. The interest levels were very high and can be compared to fans of professional sports in the 21st century, except that the "fans" were voters who in actual fact decided elections. The elections of 1828-32, 1854-56, and 1894-96 are usually considered Realigning elections.
The system was characterized by two major parties who dominated government at the local, state and national level, and enlisted most voters into a loyal "army" of supporters. There were numerous small third parties that usually were short-lived or inconsequential. The complex system of electing federal, state and local officials meant that election campaigns were both frequent and consequential in terms of political power. Nearly all government jobs were distributed on a patronage basis to party workers. The jobs were honorific and usually paid very well. The best way to get a patronage job was to work in the election campaign for the winning party, and volunteers were numerous. Elections provided Americans with much of their news. The interest levels were very high and can be compared to fans of professional sports in the 21st century, except that the "fans" were voters who in actual fact decided elections. The elections of 1828-32, 1854-56, and 1894-96 are usually considered Realigning elections.
BUDGET 2008
The Budget for 2008-09 will be the least taxing (no pun intended!) for the Finance Minister, Mr P. Chidambaram, in several respects and for various reasons. It is the year when the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) Government will be gearing up for the Lok Sabha elections due in 2009. It may even be forced into advancing it to sometime in 2008 itself depending on the outcome of the see-saw that is going on with the Left over the nuclear deal and the results of elections in Himachal Pradesh and Gujarat. The best that Mr Chidambaram would like to do in these circumstances is not to rock the boat or be in the eye of any political storm.
Coasting along agreeably seems actually the best option for him. There is an upbeat mood abroad in the country in macro-economic terms. In fact, things could not be better. Let us start with a broad-brush recital of some of the salient features. Embarrassment of riches
If the present trends in the overall economic performance and management continue, it will not be fanciful to expect the GDP to breeze past the magic double-digit figure of 10. In the first quarter of 2007-08, there has been a heartening growth in all sectors of the economy.
Just to quote a few figures culled at random, the percentage of rise in manufacturing has been 11.9, closely followed by construction (10.7) and services (10.6), covering the entire spectrum of trade, hotels, transport, communications, banking, insurance, real estate and business, community, social and personal services.
Even agriculture, which had been mired in one per cent or less, has had a rebound, registering 3.8 per cent growth. Automobile parts and chemicals and pharmaceuticals have also been doing India proud, consistently forging ahead of the general industrial growth.
This record is matched by India’s showing in merchandise exports. It is not simply that the increase has been a steady 20-25 per cent in dollar terms, but the contents of the exports basket are fast getting diversified, moving away from traditional items such as textiles, gems, jewellery and leather towards engineering goods, automobile parts, chemicals and pharmaceuticals. In this light, the Government’s target of $150 billion for exports in 2008-09 to double India’s share in world exports to 1.5 per cent, seems easily attainable.
There is an embarrassment of riches on the foreign exchange front. The torrent of FDI amounting to $11.4 billion between January and June 2007 is 218 per cent more than the $3.6 billion trickling in during the same period in 2006.
Net capital inflows, which totalled $44.94 billion during 2006-07, are expected to exceed $ 57 billion this fiscal. There is a distinct chance of the reserves vaulting over $300 billion by the time the Finance Minister rises to present the Budget. The gross domestic savings rate, at around 35 per cent, is the highest for any emerging economy. Sound fiscal management
The RBI and the Government in tandem have demonstrated their skill in keeping inflation within check by forging an appropriate balance between the supply of money and the demand for goods. They can be trusted to continue to put in their best efforts to maintain inflation within the prudent limit of 5 per cent that they have laid down for themselves.
Vital signs of fiscal health are also quite pleasing. Buoyed by a 16.31 increase in the collection of direct taxes, the fiscal and revenue deficits in 2007-08 are expected to be not more than 3.3 per cent and 1.5 per cent respectively of the GDP.
The Finance Minister has even talked of wiping out the revenue deficit in 2008-09 and reining in the fiscal deficit in conformity with the goals set by the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act. The Prime Minister’s Economic Advisory Council (EAC), in its latest report, has patted the Government on the back for “the considerable progress towards fiscal consolidation”.
And well it might! The aggregate fiscal deficit of the Centre and States will be not more than 5.2 per cent of GDP in 2007-08 as against 6.3 per cent in 2006-07, thanks largely to the States complying with the prescribed targets ahead of schedule and even managing to muster a revenue surplus 0.39 per cent of GDP this fiscal. The picture that comes out of putting together all the figures is the supreme confidence and courage, as also the vitality and ingenuity with which India’s economic players have been converting challenges into opportunities. They are acquiring companies, spreading their wings and straddling the world stage with gusto.
Considering this, the exuberance of Sensex pawing like a race-horse to gallop across 30,000 cannot be said to be irrational but befits the description of being only irrepressible. Implementation and maintenance
Thus, the 2008-09 Budget will not make any demands on the undoubted acumen of Mr Chidambaram. The nation has reached the point of saturation with the plethora of schemes already launched under the rubric of Bharat Nirman, and any further addition will be counter-productive.
What is of pivotal importance now is their determined implementation within the allotted resources and time, and the proper maintenance in working order of projects already on the ground. If only the Minister of State for Statistics and Programme Implementation, Mr G. K.Vasan, discharges the onus for this falling on him effectively, two more points would be added to the GDP.
There has been enough juggling and shuffling with the rates and quanta of both direct and indirect taxes. The focus must now shift to strengthening the tax collection machinery and the simplification of the tax laws by taking swift action on the report already submitted by the Study Group appointed by the Government. Soaring government expenditure
The Finance Minister must take to heart the EAC’s warning on the soaring government expenditure. Successive Finance Ministers have found the task of reducing government expenditure akin to climbing a greasy pole. This time too, Mr Chidambaram is up against formidable obstacles to any attempt at enforcing financial discipline. The main culprits, as always, are going to be the outgo on subsidies and the bloated bureaucracy.
The other day, an astronomical amount of Rs 100,000 crore was mentioned by the Prime Minister, Dr Manmohan Singh, himself as the annual unplugged drain on food, fertiliser and fuel subsidies. He wants them pruned so that only the really needy and the poor benefit from them. If making the right noises and going through the motions could have done the trick, there would have been no problem left to solve.
Dr Manmohan Singh, when he was Finance Minister in 1991-96, tried his hand at restructuring them. Mr Chidambaram too, when he was the Finance Minister in 1990, had got a comprehensive action plan prepared for the same purpose. Neither could make any headway, since on both occasions their proposals were promptly shot down by vested interests.
Now that he has the Prime Minister’s stern public mandate for bringing down this burden, Mr Chidambaram will do well to start dialogues with the lobbies opposed to the idea so as to prevail upon them to agree to the pruning process with the forthcoming Budget.Hefty handouts
On the bonanzas for government employees supposed to be under the consideration of the Sixth Pay Commission, the media is indulging in all sorts of wild speculation about their runaway nature. The Central and State Governments are stampeded every time into granting hefty payouts disproportionate to the work put in, and it will not be any different this time.
The Finance Minister should at least see to it that sanctioning of increases is made conditional upon acceptance by staff associations of minimum essential standards and norms of productivity and a phased right-sizing of establishments at the Centre and in the States, taking account of past recommendations of bodies constituted for the purpose.Fiscal Responsibility Index
Finally, considering the onerous obligations imposed upon the Finance Minister by the Fiscal Responsibility and Budgetary Management Act, it is time a suitable Fiscal Responsibility Index (FRI) was devised to measure the extent of adherence to parameters governing the management and utilisation of the huge resources of Central and State Governments.
A beginning can be made with the design of an appropriate matrix already worked out by the Public Expenditure Round Table, a professional and non-political think-tank engaged in promoting an efficient and effective system of public expenditure and greater fiscal responsibility.
Coasting along agreeably seems actually the best option for him. There is an upbeat mood abroad in the country in macro-economic terms. In fact, things could not be better. Let us start with a broad-brush recital of some of the salient features. Embarrassment of riches
If the present trends in the overall economic performance and management continue, it will not be fanciful to expect the GDP to breeze past the magic double-digit figure of 10. In the first quarter of 2007-08, there has been a heartening growth in all sectors of the economy.
Just to quote a few figures culled at random, the percentage of rise in manufacturing has been 11.9, closely followed by construction (10.7) and services (10.6), covering the entire spectrum of trade, hotels, transport, communications, banking, insurance, real estate and business, community, social and personal services.
Even agriculture, which had been mired in one per cent or less, has had a rebound, registering 3.8 per cent growth. Automobile parts and chemicals and pharmaceuticals have also been doing India proud, consistently forging ahead of the general industrial growth.
This record is matched by India’s showing in merchandise exports. It is not simply that the increase has been a steady 20-25 per cent in dollar terms, but the contents of the exports basket are fast getting diversified, moving away from traditional items such as textiles, gems, jewellery and leather towards engineering goods, automobile parts, chemicals and pharmaceuticals. In this light, the Government’s target of $150 billion for exports in 2008-09 to double India’s share in world exports to 1.5 per cent, seems easily attainable.
There is an embarrassment of riches on the foreign exchange front. The torrent of FDI amounting to $11.4 billion between January and June 2007 is 218 per cent more than the $3.6 billion trickling in during the same period in 2006.
Net capital inflows, which totalled $44.94 billion during 2006-07, are expected to exceed $ 57 billion this fiscal. There is a distinct chance of the reserves vaulting over $300 billion by the time the Finance Minister rises to present the Budget. The gross domestic savings rate, at around 35 per cent, is the highest for any emerging economy. Sound fiscal management
The RBI and the Government in tandem have demonstrated their skill in keeping inflation within check by forging an appropriate balance between the supply of money and the demand for goods. They can be trusted to continue to put in their best efforts to maintain inflation within the prudent limit of 5 per cent that they have laid down for themselves.
Vital signs of fiscal health are also quite pleasing. Buoyed by a 16.31 increase in the collection of direct taxes, the fiscal and revenue deficits in 2007-08 are expected to be not more than 3.3 per cent and 1.5 per cent respectively of the GDP.
The Finance Minister has even talked of wiping out the revenue deficit in 2008-09 and reining in the fiscal deficit in conformity with the goals set by the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act. The Prime Minister’s Economic Advisory Council (EAC), in its latest report, has patted the Government on the back for “the considerable progress towards fiscal consolidation”.
And well it might! The aggregate fiscal deficit of the Centre and States will be not more than 5.2 per cent of GDP in 2007-08 as against 6.3 per cent in 2006-07, thanks largely to the States complying with the prescribed targets ahead of schedule and even managing to muster a revenue surplus 0.39 per cent of GDP this fiscal. The picture that comes out of putting together all the figures is the supreme confidence and courage, as also the vitality and ingenuity with which India’s economic players have been converting challenges into opportunities. They are acquiring companies, spreading their wings and straddling the world stage with gusto.
Considering this, the exuberance of Sensex pawing like a race-horse to gallop across 30,000 cannot be said to be irrational but befits the description of being only irrepressible. Implementation and maintenance
Thus, the 2008-09 Budget will not make any demands on the undoubted acumen of Mr Chidambaram. The nation has reached the point of saturation with the plethora of schemes already launched under the rubric of Bharat Nirman, and any further addition will be counter-productive.
What is of pivotal importance now is their determined implementation within the allotted resources and time, and the proper maintenance in working order of projects already on the ground. If only the Minister of State for Statistics and Programme Implementation, Mr G. K.Vasan, discharges the onus for this falling on him effectively, two more points would be added to the GDP.
There has been enough juggling and shuffling with the rates and quanta of both direct and indirect taxes. The focus must now shift to strengthening the tax collection machinery and the simplification of the tax laws by taking swift action on the report already submitted by the Study Group appointed by the Government. Soaring government expenditure
The Finance Minister must take to heart the EAC’s warning on the soaring government expenditure. Successive Finance Ministers have found the task of reducing government expenditure akin to climbing a greasy pole. This time too, Mr Chidambaram is up against formidable obstacles to any attempt at enforcing financial discipline. The main culprits, as always, are going to be the outgo on subsidies and the bloated bureaucracy.
The other day, an astronomical amount of Rs 100,000 crore was mentioned by the Prime Minister, Dr Manmohan Singh, himself as the annual unplugged drain on food, fertiliser and fuel subsidies. He wants them pruned so that only the really needy and the poor benefit from them. If making the right noises and going through the motions could have done the trick, there would have been no problem left to solve.
Dr Manmohan Singh, when he was Finance Minister in 1991-96, tried his hand at restructuring them. Mr Chidambaram too, when he was the Finance Minister in 1990, had got a comprehensive action plan prepared for the same purpose. Neither could make any headway, since on both occasions their proposals were promptly shot down by vested interests.
Now that he has the Prime Minister’s stern public mandate for bringing down this burden, Mr Chidambaram will do well to start dialogues with the lobbies opposed to the idea so as to prevail upon them to agree to the pruning process with the forthcoming Budget.Hefty handouts
On the bonanzas for government employees supposed to be under the consideration of the Sixth Pay Commission, the media is indulging in all sorts of wild speculation about their runaway nature. The Central and State Governments are stampeded every time into granting hefty payouts disproportionate to the work put in, and it will not be any different this time.
The Finance Minister should at least see to it that sanctioning of increases is made conditional upon acceptance by staff associations of minimum essential standards and norms of productivity and a phased right-sizing of establishments at the Centre and in the States, taking account of past recommendations of bodies constituted for the purpose.Fiscal Responsibility Index
Finally, considering the onerous obligations imposed upon the Finance Minister by the Fiscal Responsibility and Budgetary Management Act, it is time a suitable Fiscal Responsibility Index (FRI) was devised to measure the extent of adherence to parameters governing the management and utilisation of the huge resources of Central and State Governments.
A beginning can be made with the design of an appropriate matrix already worked out by the Public Expenditure Round Table, a professional and non-political think-tank engaged in promoting an efficient and effective system of public expenditure and greater fiscal responsibility.
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